ABSTRACT
Many communities in Obosi in Anambra state, Nigeria are increasingly dependent on hand dug wells. The aim of this study was to examine the drinking water suitability of Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi ground water supply and its health risk. Total coliforms were enumerated using the standard most probable number method and membrane filtration methods. A sanitation survey was undertaken to ascertain the conditions of the wells. Also the physico-chemical properties of the water were assessed.
Overall, significantly higher bacterial counts were recorded during the wet (rainy) season compared to the dry season. A brief sanitation survey at each site indicated that the wells were frequently cited near latrines, refuse tips, as well as in the vicinity of domestic or grazing animals. In Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi, the water from shallow wells upon which the local communities depend is of poor quality. This is because all the wells sampled failed to meet the zero coliform per 100 ml set by WHO (World Health Organization). The physico-chemical properties of many of the wells varied with the seasons. For instance, five of the wells indicated high nitrate levels for the dry season, and low for the wet. One well had a mean nitrate value of about 0.1 mg/l in the dry season but 0.02 in the wet season. This means for that well, the nitrate level in the wet season increased about 80% during the dry season.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Background Information
Water, after air, is the most essential commodity to the survival of life. Human life depends to a large extent, on water. It is used for an array of activities; chief among these being for drinking, food preparation, as well as for sanitation purposes. Inasmuch as safe drinking water is essential to health, a community lacking a good quality of this commodity will be saddled with a lot of health problems which could otherwise be avoided (Miller, 1997).
Water is a fundamental resource, integral to all environmental and social processes. Access to adequate safe drinking water is of prime importance to many governmental and international organizations since undebatably it is the core component of primary health care and a basic component of human development as well as a precondition for man’s success to deal with hunger, poverty and death (SOPAC/WHO, 2005). There is a growing concern everywhere that in the coming century, cities will suffer imbalances in quality water supply, consumption, and population. Many regions of the world are already limited by the amount and quality of available water. According to World Health Organization (WHO, 2002), in the next thirty years alone, accessible water is unlikely to increase more than ten percent (10%) but the earth’s population is projected to rise by approximately one-third. Unless the efficiency of water use rises, this imbalance will reduce quality water services, reduce the conditions of health of people and deteriorate the environment and the world.
The world’s population size and the rapid urbanization growth is increasingly a major issue in the world especially in developing countries. Cairncross (2002), showed that by the year 1975, about 74% of the urban population in the developing world had access to safe water, the figure increased to about three hundred million (79%) in 1985 partly because of the International Water Decade which was an improvement, however, there were still 21% of the people who were still not having access to safe water. The rapidity with which cities are growing is frightening in the sense that human population with its associated sanitation problems will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible quality water (Jackson et al, 2001). This means that per capita availability of quality water will decrease in the coming century.
Although, many international conferences as well as researches have gone on in the past, little by way of success has been chalked so far. Report from World Health Organization (2002) indicates that over 2.6 billion people were still suffering from the effect of poor water around the world. It is based on this that Heads of states and governments met and signed the Millennium Declaration at the 2000 UN Millennium summit to end the sufferings from the effects of poor water quality across the globe, as a matter of urgency (WHO, 2002).
The growing demands for adequate quality water resources create an urgent need to link research with improved water management, better monitoring, assessment, and forecasting of water resources and sanitation issues with much emphasis on the roles of stakeholders (Yamaguchi & Wesselink, 2000). It must however be emphasized that adequate water quality needs seem to have improved greatly in some regions and countries especially in the developed world but for poor nations this is still a major issue (Stockholm International Water Institute, SIWI, 2001). As observed by WHO-UNICEF (2004), while in 2002, countries like Japan, Australia, Austria, Switzerland and Sweden had achieved hundred percent, others, such as countries in sub Saharan Africa are far below 50%. For instance, Guinea 6%, Liberia 7%, Niger 4%, Togo 15%, and Nigeria 46%.
According to Sarpong (2002), the main source of water in these regions includes untreated rain water from roofs, polluted rivers and streams, unprotected wells and bore holes. He went further to show that there is little to choose between sub Sahara rural and urban since the rural to some extent has only to deal with the quality while the urban has both the quantity and quality to deal with.
Water related health problems are a growing human tragedy, and according to WHO (2003), it kills more than 5 million people a year with infants being the most affected. This figure seems to be the highest as compared to wars and disasters (UNESCO, 2003). The problems also prevent millions of people from leading healthy lives, and undermine developmental efforts by burdening the society with substantial socio-economic costs for treatment of water-borne diseases. This problem is of great significance in cities in developing countries, where polluted water, water shortages, and unsanitary living conditions prevail. Information from WHO (2002), WHO/UNICEF (2004) says although access to water has improved greatly, access to safe water is still a major issue. The source quoted that about some 1.1 billion people rely on unsafe drinking water sources in developing countries and the lowest drinking water coverage rates are in sub Saharan Africa (58%) with a corresponding low sanitation coverage rates (36%) which leads to many deaths especially among children through diarrhea among other water-related diseases. To meet the 2015 target of the United Nations Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) on access to safe drinking water therefore, will require that countries create the political will and resources to manage water especially in growing urban cities in sub Saharan Africa (Bain, Gundry, Wright, Yang, Pedley & Bartram, 2011).
Sources of water available to mankind are: atmospheric water (precipitate), surface water (including rivers, streams, ponds, etc), and ground water. The potability of water from any of these sources is determined by the water quality (Miller, 1997).
With 97% of all freshwater found on the earth being stored underground, accessing ground water in the quest for potable water is a laudable venture. Groundwater is accessed by way of sinking wells and boreholes to reach the water table (Overseas Development Institute, 2009).
Water-related diseases are responsible for 80% of all illnesses/death in developing countries (UNESC0, 2007). According to Kalua and Chipeta (2005) as cited in Pritchard, Mkandawire, and O’Neill (2008), in Malawi, only 65% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 50% of all illnesses are solely due to water related diseases. Water is a medium of thousands of microorganisms, some of which are disease-causing (Schaffter & Parriaux, 2002).
A typical example can be seen in the facts of the matter as it pertains in Malawi and reported by several researchers (Chilton & Smith-Carington, 1984; Kalua, & Chipeta, 2005; Sajidu, Masamba, Henry & Kuyeli, 2007). The mortality rate in Malawi in 2002 from cholera was over 50% of the water-related deaths. During the 2001/2002 rainy season, 33,150 cholera cases and 980 deaths were recorded in Malawi (Davis, 2005). Globally, 4 billion cases of diarrhoea are reported every year causing 1.8 million deaths, out of which about 90% are children under age five (UNESCO, 2007).
Potable water is defined as water that is free from pathogens, low in compounds that are acutely toxic or that have grave long-term effects on human health (Shlutz and Okun, 1984). Potable water should be free from compounds that can cause change in the ‘normal’ colour, taste (e.g. high salinity) and odour. Shallow wells are normally located in valleys where the groundwater table is relatively high (1 – 4 m below ground level) and infiltration of rain and river water plays a main part in the groundwater recharge. Boreholes however, draw water from deep (20 – 80 m or more) aquifers (Pritchard, Mkandawire & O’Neil, 2008).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Pathogens as well as life threatening chemicals get to pollute the groundwater system through leaching. When such polluted ground water is sourced for human consumption, the health implications can be overwhelming. Poor sanitation practices, such as locating on-site sanitation systems close to these wells, are a sure contributing factor in the pollution of the ground water system (ARGOSS, 2001). It has been documented, and accepted as a standard that when on-site sanitation systems are sited less than 50 m away from wells and bore holes, the water from such wells will definitely be polluted (Obiri Danso et al., 2008).
Water from wells dug in close proximity to VIPs (Ventilated Improved Pits) may have health hazards. Getting safe water for human consumption is essential for good health and a basic human right. Quality of water from such wells needs to be checked periodically in order to ascertain whether they are good for human consumption and other domestic use.
Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi in Anambra state of the Republic of Nigeria have a lot of wells to provide drinking water to curb the acute water shortages experienced by the inhabitants. Within these communities there are various improperly managed sanitation systems, including Ventilated Improved Pits (VIPs). Also the water table is quite high in the low-lying part of the area; Saltpond being a low-lying coastal community. Thus the possibility of the local ground water system being contaminated by bacteria as well as other microorganisms from the various pits cannot be overlooked.
Again, health records obtained from the Municipal Hospital showed that the communities experience periodic outbreaks of water-borne diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, etc. This occurs virtually every year (from researcher’s personal observation).
It is therefore important to investigate the possibility or otherwise of pollution of the water sourced from the wells. This will help ascertain whether or not the diseases reported at the Municipal Hospital are either directly or indirectly related to water sourced from these wells.
1.3 Objectives
The main objective of the study is to assess the quality of water from ASCOHT.
1.4 Specific Objectives
1.4.1 To determine the level of the pH, colour, turbidity, nitrates, ammonium, chloride, and conductivity, of water samples from selected wells.
1.4.2 To determine the microbial quality of water from the selected wells – faecal coliforms, E. coli
1.4.3 To assess the perception of users about the quality of the well water by the administration of interviews.
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