PRODUCTION OF BLEACH

ABSTRACT

The general objective of this study was to assess the production of bleaching products available in Lagos State, Nigeria using physico-chemical methods.

Methodology

Thirty six samples of sodium hypochlorite were evaluated for general characteristics such as adequacy of label information and pH and assay of active chlorine. Similarly, thirty three samples of hydrogen peroxide were analyzed for identity, adequacy of labeling, acidity and content of hydrogen peroxide. Analytical methods prescribed by the British Pharmacopoeia and the Nigeria Bureau of Standards were used. Triplicate analyses were done.

Results

Samples of sodium hypochlorite used as bleaching agents (26), for treatment of water (5) and as hospital disinfectants (5) were collected from Lagos State. The content of active chlorine was as follows bleaching agent (2-4 w/v %), treatment of water (0.9-1.1 w/v %) and disinfectant (4-6 w/v %) respectively. Twenty out of the twenty six samples (77 %) analyzed complied with the NBSS requirement of a minimum ≤ 2 % w/v) of active chlorine for bleaching agents. All 5 (100 %) samples of sodium hypochlorite used for water treatment met label claim for BP 2017 of 0.9 % w/v and 1.1 % w/v of active chlorine. The values ranged between 1.0 % w/v and 1.3 % w/v corresponding to 92.5 % and 105.8 % of the label claim (1.2 % w/v). All the samples (n=5) used as disinfectants did not comply with specifications for content (4-6 % w/v). One sample out of the five samples (20 %) did not comply with NBSS requirement (minimum ≤ 2 % w/v) for content of active chlorine.

Fifty five percent (n=11) of detergent hydrogen peroxide (3 % w/v H2O2) samples met BP (2017) specification of 2.5-3.5 % w/v of H2O2. All the samples (n=21) antiseptic hydrogen peroxide (6 % w/v H2O2) did not meet the BP (2017) specification of 5 %-7 % w/v of H2O2. The content of hydrogen peroxide samples ranged between 3.0 % w/v and 4.7 % w/v. The hydrogen peroxide laboratory reagent was found to contain 13.6 % w/v and this was out of BP specification of 29-31 % w/v of H2O2.

Conclusion

About 45 % of detergent hydrogen peroxide samples, all the samples (n=21) of antiseptic hydrogen peroxide and laboratory reagent 30 % w/v hydrogen peroxide did not comply with BP 2017 specifications for assay. While 23 % of the bleaching agent analyzed did not meet NBSS requirements of active chlorine. Five samples of sodium hypochlorite used for treatment of water complied with BP 2017 specifications for the assay while all the samples (n=5) of sodium hypochlorite used as disinfectants did not comply with BP 2017 specifications for content of active chlorine. There is need for continued post market surveillance and enforcement of labeling and packaging specifications by manufacturers for compliance with pharmacopoeial and Nigeria bureau of standards specification.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction

The term Microorganism generally refers to a diverse group of unicellular or multicellular organisms that have both beneficial and non-beneficial effects (Gabor and Tibor, 1999). Some microorganisms have industrial applications such as in the production of cheese, wine, yoghurt and penicillin while others have been implicated with causing infectious diseases like cholera, dysentery and typhoid (Mihriban et al., 2006). There are various approaches targeting the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms. These include the use of antibiotics, sterilization and disinfection, among other approaches (Michael et al., 2005).

Disinfectants are chemicals that are harmful on the vegetative forms of microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria especially on surfaces and equipment but are less effective against spores (Luanne et al., 2004). On the other hand, antiseptics are substances that act by preventing growth of microorganisms or inhibition of microorganism activity. In living tissues, antiseptics prevent infections (USP, 2011). Many antiseptics in the market target Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria (Hani and Adnan, 2009).

Disinfectants and antiseptics are generally categorized based on the functional groups into alcohols, aldehydes, phenolics, quaternary ammonium compounds and oxidizing agents (Lachenmeier, 2016). Alcohols are further classified into monohydric and polyhydric alcohols (USP, 2011; William et al., 2008). Examples of monohydric alcohols include ethanol and isopropanol while glycerol is an example of a polyhydric alcohol (Gerald a nd Denver, 1999). The mechanism of action of alcohols as antimicrobial agents is attributable to denaturing action of alcohol. Alcohols affect the production of metabolites essentially involved in rapid cell division (Ali et al., 2001). Alcohols are routinely used to disinfect oral and rectal thermometers (Jane, 2002; Judith, 2017) and fiber optics endoscopes, where 70 % alcohol is used (Arthur et al., 2002).

Formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde and ortho-phthalaldehyde are examples of aldehydes used as disinfectants (Victor, 2005). Mechanistically, they inactivate microorganisms‟ amino and thiol groups of proteins and the ring nitrogen of the purine bases by alkalization (Gurusamy, 2008). Reusable hemodialyzers are commonly disinfected using formaldehyde although a decline has been being witnessed (Drukker et al., 1996) while glutaraldehyde is used to disinfect anesthesia and respiratory therapy equipment (Nancymarie, 2017). Human exposure to glutaraldehyde may lead to skin irritation and dermatitis hence care has to be taken when handling this agent (Gloria and Nick, 2004).

Phenolics used as disinfectants include ortho-phenylphenol, chloroxylenol, hexachlorophene and thymol (Semyours, 2001). At high concentrations, the phenolic compounds act as protoplasmic poisons, they act through transfixion and disruption of the cell wall and precipitation of cell proteins while at low concentrations, they also cause inactivation of essential enzyme systems and leakage of essential metabolites from the cell walls leading to bacterial cell death (Vasanthakumari, 2007). Phenolic compounds are commonly used in the decontamination of non- critical medical items and lab surfaces (Semyours, 2001). However, they are not advocated for use in infant‟s rooms due to their potential to cause hyperbilirubinemia (Carls et al., 2012).

Quaternary ammonium compounds can be categorized into cationic, non-ionic, anionic and amphoteric compounds (Reyhaneh and Ali, 2015). Surfactants that are commonly used as disinfectants are cationic and are either single-chain or twin-chain compounds (Russell et al., 1998). Single-chain compounds include benzalkonium chloride, alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, alkyl dodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride. Didodecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide and dioctyl dimethyl ammonium bromide are examples of twin-chain quaternary ammonium compounds (Megan et al., 2015). The mode of action of quaternary ammonium compounds involves inactivation of energy-producing enzymes, this causes severe deterioration of cell proteins that are essential and disarranging cell membranes (Merianos, 2001; Mansel, 2005).

Similarly to disinfectants, antiseptics are also classified based on the functional groups. The classes of antiseptics include alcohols, anilides, biguanides, bisphenols, diamidines, heavy metal derivatives and quaternary ammonium compounds among others (Russell et al., 1999; Denny and Marsik, 1997). The mechanism of action of alcohols is believed to involve membrane damage, denaturing of proteins, interference with the metabolism and cell lysis (Gerald and Denver, 1999). Isopropyl alcohol swabs are used before and after administration of an injection to disinfect the skin (Gittens and Bunnell, 2009).

Anilides are believed to act by absorbing and destroying the semi-permeable cytoplasmic membrane (Gerald and Denver, 1999). This, in turn, leads to cell death. Triclocarban is an anilide commonly used in soaps and deodorants (Johanna et al., 2017).

There are two minor classes of biguanides namely monobiguanides and polymeric biguanides used as antiseptics (Gerald and Denver, 1999). Monobiguanides such as chlorohexidine are thought to act by inhibiting membrane-bound and soluble adenosine triphosphatase as well as net potassium ion uptake in the Enterococcus faecalis. Chlorohexidine is used in the manufacture of hand-wash detergents and oral products (Shane and Elizabeth, 2014). On the other hand, polymeric biguanides, such as vantocil, impair the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria by acting on the permeability barrier. Vantocil is used to disinfect swimming pools and as a bactericide to sanitize surfaces in food processing industries (Gerald and Denver, 1999).

Triclosan is an example of a bisphenol that is commonly used in the production of hand soaps and hand rinses and toothpaste product (Damia and Andrey, 2015; Ole and Edwina, 2008). The mode of action of bisphenols as antiseptics has not been elucidated but they are postulated to affect the cytoplasmic membrane (Ole and Edwina, 2008). Triclosan has been shown to inhibit the uptake of essential nutrients in Escherichia coli. Triclosan (5μg/ml) leads to a rapid release of cellular components and in turn cell death occurs (Larson et al., 2003).

Chloroxylenol, a halophenol antiseptic, is commercially marketed as 1.2 % w/w dichloroxylenol antiseptic formulation. Chloroxylenol is believed to affect the cell wall of microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli (Grillo and Ojo, 2013). Chloroxylenol commonly used as antibacterial soap (Mary, 1996).

Diamidines are commonly used as topical treatments for wounds. Diamidines such as propamidine act by inhibiting oxygen uptake and induces leakage of amino acids of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter cloacae. Sodium isethionate forming a salt with propamidine (4,4-diamino phenoxy propane) and dibromo (2,2-dibromo-4,4- diamidine phenoxy propane) are other good example of diamidines (Gerald and Denver, 1999).

Silver compounds that are used as antiseptics include silver nitrate and silver sulphadiazine (Abdulkareem and Wiley, 2005). The mechanism of action of silver compounds involves the interaction with the thiol groups in the amino acids of target microorganisms (Woo et al., 2008). Silver nitrate also interacts the cysteine and sodium thioglycolate present in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Liaus et al., 1997).

Quaternary ammonium compounds used as antiseptics include cetrimide, chlorhexidine and salvon (combination of cetrimide and chlorhexidine). The mechanism of action of cetrimide involves membrane disorganization which leads to cell wall lysis caused by autolytic enzymes and damaging bacterial cell wall (Denyer, 1995). Figure 1.1 shows the structures representatives of compounds of various classes of disinfectants and antiseptics.

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