ABSTRACT
The study shows Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L) from groundnut
samples collected from the six markets in the Central Region of Ghana
namely: Swedru, Mankessim, Cape Coast, Fosu, Jukwa and Kasoa. All groundnut
sellers interviewed were females and have no knowledge about aflatoxins. Thirty
five percent 35% of the groundnut sellers had no formal education whilst 26.7%
had basic primary education and 23.3% had Junior high school education.
The fungal organisms encountered on the groundnut samples
from the six market centres were: Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger,
Botryodiplodia theobromae, Macrophomina phaseolina, Penicillum spp.
and Rhizopus spp. Laboratory results indicate that on
unamended PDA Fosu A. flavus isolate showed better growth (8.5 cm) than
the rest (7.0 cm- 8.0cm). However, there was a strong radial growth inhibition
of A. flavus, in the garlic amended PDA than the rest of the botanical
extracts.
Whereas the HPLC analyses of the groundnut samples were all
below the tolerable limit (20 ppb) of Ghana Bureau of Standards for
consumption, Cape Coast recorded the highest of (9.1 ppb) and Jukwa recorded
the lowest (1.8 ppb). The four types of aflatoxin detected in the groundnut
samples from the six market centres were: B1, B2, G1 and G2.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important food and feed
crop, which also serves as a component of crop rotation in many tropical
countries (Pande, Saxena & Pandey, 2003; Upadhyaya, Reedy, Gowda &
Singh, 2006). It is believed that groundnut was a cultivated annual of South
America origin and domesticated in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Peru and
Bolivia (Tweneboah, 2000). The major groundnut producing countries in the world
include India, China, America, the Gambia and Malaysia. Leading producing
countries in Africa include Nigeria, Senegal, Niger and Sudan (Tweneboah,
2000). Developing countries account for 97% of the world’s groundnut area and
94% of the total production (Food Agriculture Organization Statistics,
2010).Groundnut yield in this part of the world and particularly in Africa is
lower than the world average due to prevailing abiotic and biotic factors
(Pande et al., 2003; Upadhyaya et al., 2006; Caliskan, Arslan & Arioglu,
2008). The average yield of groundnut was 1.5 mt / ha and 4.8 mt / ha in 2010
and 2012, respectively (Food Agriculture Organization, 2012).
Groundnut is grown mainly in the northern part of Ghana,
including Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions. It is also grown in
small quantities in small towns and villages in Brong Ahafo, Ashanti and Volta
Regions. The production of groundnut is a source of employment and hence income
to people in rural and urban areas, as well as those who sell in the market centres (Tsigbey, Branddenburg
& Clottey, 2004, Carlberg, 2008, Debrad & Saliyar, 2006, Waele &
Swanevelder, 2001) thereby alleviating poverty. Groundnut is also a
non-traditional export crop in Ghana, hence a source of foreign exchange. For
instance in 2014 Ghana exported a volume of groundnut to the European Union
amounting to 10.5 million Euros (Florkowski & Kolavalli, 2012).
Groundnuts play a vast role in food security in Ghana been a
source of vegetable and protein (Izge, Mohammed & Goni, 2007). Groundnuts
conspicuously exceed meat and eggs in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamin
B1, C, and niacin. They are also superior in terms of minerals such as calcium,
phosphorous, magnesium and potassium, without cholesterol or excess saturated
fatty acids (Roger, 2001). Groundnut is eaten fresh, roasted, boiled or grilled
and in the preparation of soup (Waele & Swanevelder, 2001). It is used as
butter, eaten alone, in sandwiches; into chocolate as well as in candies, pies
and other products (World Book of Encyclopedia, 1990). It can thrive under hash
environmental condition and plays important role in improving soil conditions
by adding atmospheric nitrogen to the soil (Smart, Wicklow & Caldwell,
1990).
Problem Statement
In spite of the economic importance of groundnut there are
great challenges associated with its production in Ghana. As a result, yields
of groundnuts in the country are lower compared to the average for the
developing countries (FAO, 2003; Nutsugah, Oboateng, Tsigbey & Brandenburg,
2007). The current average yield of groundnut in Ghana is 1.4 Mt ha-1 which is lower compared to
the potential yield of 2.5 Mt ha-1 (Ministry Of Food Agriculture-Statistics
Research Information Directorate, 2013), and far lower compared to the world
average of 4.8 Mt ha-1 (FAO, 2012).
Notable among these challenges facing groundnut production in
Ghana are fungal contaminants such as Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus.
Which affect seed germination of groundnut by reducing the viability, resulting
in poor production. Besides, infection of groundnut by these fungal organisms
such as A. flavus and A. parasiticus, results in the production of mycotoxins
such as aflatoxin which are toxic to both humans and animals (Kaaya, Eigal
& Harris, 2006). Aflatoxin contamination of food commodities and its
associated health risks have raised universal concern over the years. The
presence of aflatoxins is therefore considered as one of the most important
groundnut quality problems in many African countries including Ghana (Kaaya et
al., 2006).
In addition, the moustiness and mouldy smell of the harvested
produce of groundnut affect the market value and hence its profitability.
Generally, mycotoxins are associated with fungi infection of groundnut which
include loss of germination, moistness as well as mouldy smell (Sauer, Meronuck
& Christensen, 1992; Frisvad, 1995), and aflatoxin contamination (McAlpin,
Wicklow & Horn, 2002; Bankole & Adebanjo, 2003).
Furthermore, from 2009 to 2013, analytical results from EU
control laboratories reported that aflatoxin levels exceeded European Union
limits for groundnut and peanut butter from Ghana. This necessitated the EU to
impose import controls for groundnut from Ghana (Ghana Export Promotion
Authority, 2015).
It is therefore pertinent to develop
an effective management strategy to reduce fungal infection of groundnut in
order to improve viability of seed, market value of grains and also reduce the
levels of aflatoxin contamination. Knowledge of factors affecting the quality
of groundnuts at the various markets is an important prerequisite to the
development of the effective strategy. Also information on types of fungal
organisms infecting groundnuts and the associated types and levels of aflatoxin
contamination of the groundnuts are also important in the development of such
effective strategy (Sauer et al., 1992).
However, there is inadequate information on the factors
affecting the quality of groundnuts at the various market centres. Chemical
fungicides such as Thiram have been used to control fungal infection of
groundnut (Okello, Briuma & Deom, 2010). The use of chemical pesticides,
has both health and environmental hazards, and also very expensive, beyond the
financial means of many farmers. Therefore, there is the need to identify
sustainable and environmental friendly remedy to salvage this situation such as
botanicals which can be found all over the communities at no cost, non-toxic to
the environment and human.
Justification
When an effective strategy for managing fungal infection is
developed, it will minimise fungal infection of groundnuts at the various
markets. Further, by minimising fungal infection, mycotoxins, such as
aflatoxins, which cause health risk to both humans and animals, will also be
reduced. Furthermore, this could increase the volume of groundnut export to the
foreign markets, thereby improving the foreign
exchange earning of the country and thus improving the economy of Ghana.
Objectives of the Study
Main objective
The main objective of the study was to determine the factors
affecting the quality of groundnut, the types of fungal organisms and their
management as well as identifying the types and levels of aflatoxins in
groundnut from six major markets in the Central Region.
Specific objectives were as follows:
To determine sellers’ perception of fungal contamination,
their source of seeds, transportation and storage.
To identify seed-borne mycoflora of the groundnut samples
from the six markets in the Central Region.
To determine the diversity of Aspergillus flavus isolates
from the groundnut samples based on cultural and morphological characteristics.
To identify the efficacy of botanicals on the growth of Aspergillus
flavus in vitro.
To determine the types and quantity of aflatoxins in the
groundnut samples.
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