ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to determine the enrichment
levels of chicken eggs with the inclusion of varying levels of flaxseed oil in
layer diet. As part this study, a preliminary trial was conducted to assess the
potential of an indigenous seed in Ghana as a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Oils from egusi (melon seeds) and werewere (neri seeds) seeds were
extracted and omega-3 and omega-6 content evaluated using the Gas
Chromatography technique. Following the results, 80 commercial Lohmann
tradition layers (n=20 per treatment) were randomly allotted to 4 dietary
treatments with varying levels of flaxseed oil (control (0%), 1.5%, 3% and
4.5%) from 39 weeks of age of layers until 70 weeks. Individual omega-3 and
omega-6-fatty acids were extracted from the egg yolk beginning 41 to 70 weeks
and analysed using Gas Chromatography technique. Egg quality was also
determined as the level of flaxseed oil increased in the diet in addition to
storage duration of eggs over a period of 14 days. At 70 weeks of production, 5
birds from each treatment were randomly selected, euthanized by cervical
dislocation and dissected for evidence of fatty liver haemorrhage syndrome. The
data was analysed using the SAS Proc. GLM procedure and ls means separated by
the PDIFF procedure of SAS at P < 0.05. The results showed that both egusi
and werewere contained 61.18% and 54.03% linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid)
respectively but both had no trace of omega 3 fatty acids. By substituting feed
ingredients such as maize, soyabean meal and fishmeal in layer diet with 3%
flaxseed oil, there was about 0.2 mg/ml deposition of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty
acids deposited chicken eggs. The level of deposition of omega 3 (n;3 PUFA) and
omega 6 (n;6 PUFA) in the 3% inclusion of flaxseed oil was 2.58 fold higher
than the control which had no flaxseed oil. For individual n-3 PUFA levels, the
fold increases from control diet to the 3% oil inclusion were: 18:3 n-3
(α-linolenic acid, (ALA) = 1.55; 20:3 n-3 (Eicosatrienoic acid, (ETA) = 16.79;
20:5 n-3 (Eicosapentaenoic acid, (EPA) = 0.15; 22:3 n-3 (Docosatrienoic acid) =
27.81; 22:5 n-3 (Docosapentaenoic acid, (DPA) = 1.6; and 22:6 n-3
(Docosahexaenoic acid, (DHA) = 3.22. Haugh unit value, which is a measure of
protein quality in the albumen of eggs was 81.2 in the 3% flaxseed oil group
compared to the rest of the treatment (Control (81.0), 1.5 (79.9) and 4.5
(80.8). The treatment with 4.5% flaxseed oil had heavier (P <0 .05="" 0.96="" 1.5="" 14="" 3="" 63.81g="" 97.15="" a="" albumen="" ambient="" an="" and="" carbon="" compared="" days="" dioxide="" effect="" egg="" eggs.="" eggs="" from="" g="" in="" increasing="" indication="" little="" loss="" moisture="" of="" ontrol="" over="" period="" quality="" r="" reduction="" rest="" storage="" stored="" strong="" temperature="" the="" there="" to="" was="" weight="" were="" when="" with="" y="-2.3444x"> 0.05), of
feeding treatments on egg quality. There was no difference (P > 0.05) in
live weight of birds, liver weight and abdominal fat weight between the
treatments. The treatments with 3% and 4.5% flaxseed oil had higher (P < 0.05)
liver haemorrhage score compared to 1.5% flaxseed oil inclusion and control.
This could mean continuously feeding of birds on high amount of the oil diets
and PUFA impact the health of the birds negatively. However, there were no
mortalities associated with the haemorrhage score. Therefore, further studies
should examine the optimum interval to ensure proper egg enrichment without
jeopardizing the health of the birds.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Objective
1.2 Specific Objectives
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE POULTRY INDUSTRY IN
GHANA
2.1.1 Challenges of the
Poultry Industry
2.1.1.1 Poultry Feeds and
Feed Ingredients
2.1.1.2 Price
2.1.1.3 Demand and Supply of
Poultry Products
2.1.1.4 Trends of Layer
Production in Ghana
2.2 OIL SEEDS
2.2.1 Flaxseed
2.2.1.1 Chemical Composition
of Flax Seed
2.2.2 Egusi (Melon) and
Werewere (Neri) Seeds
2.2.2.1 Chemical composition
of Egusi
2.3 FATTY ACID NUTRITION AND
METABOLISM
2.3.1 Essential Fatty Acids
Metabolism
2.3.2 Fatty Acid Composition
in Chicken Eggs
2.3.3 Health Benefits of
Consuming n: 3 Fatty Acids
2.4 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF
EGG
2.5 EGG QUALITY
2.5.1 Egg Weight
2.5.2 Egg Yolk Weight
2.5.3 Egg White Quality
2.5.4 Albumen Weight
2.5.5 Eggshell Quality
2.6 EGG CHOLESTROL
2.7 FATTY LIVER HAEMORRHAGE
SYNDROME
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experiment One: Egg
production and consumption patterns in some selected Municipalities in Ghana
3.1.1 Data Collection
3.1.2 Data Processing
3.2 Experiment Two: The
potential of two local seeds (Egushi and Werewere) as sources of PUFA for egg enrichment
3.2.1 Proximate Composition
and Amino Acid Determination
3.2.2 Fatty Acids
Determination
3.3 Experiment Three:
Comparative analysis of essential fatty acids deposited in eggs through layer
hen diet
3.3.1 Experimental Diet and
Experimental Design
3.3.2 The N:3 and N:6 Fatty
Acid Determination
3.4 Experiment Four: Effect
on egg storage on egg quality characteristics of n:3 fortified egg
3.4.1 Experimental Site and
Design
3.5 Experiment Five:
Assessing the effects of n:3 fortified diets on fatty liver haemorrhage
syndrome as stress of treatments on bird
3.5.1 Sampling
3.6 Statistical Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Experiment One: Egg
production and consumption patterns in some selected Municipalities in Ghana
4.1.1 Demographic
Characteristics of Producers
4.1.2 Demographic
Characteristics of Egg Sellers
4.1.3 Demographic Characteristics
of Consumers
4.1.4 Quality Characteristics
of Eggs as Food among Consumers in the Municipalities
4.1.4 Flock Size, Egg
Production and Market of Eggs of the Various Municipalities
4.1.4.1 Ewutu-Senya
Municipality
Flock size
4.1.4.2 Sehwi Wiaso Municipality
Flock size
Egg Sold per Week
4.1.4.3 Ejisu Juabeng
Municipality
Flock size and egg production
per week
Eggs Sold Per Week
4.1.4.4 Asuogyaman
Municipality
Flock Size
Egg Production Per Week
4.1.4.5 Teshie Municipality
Flock Size and Egg Production
Per Week
Egg Sold Per Week
4.1.4.6 Yegi Municipality
Flock Size and Egg Production
Per Week
Egg Sold Per Week
4.1.4.7 Shai Osudoku
Municipality
Flock Size
Eggs Sold per Week in the
Shai – Osudoku Municipality
4.2.1 Proximate Composition
of Egusi and Neri Seeds
4.2.2. Amino Acid Profile of
Egusi and Werewere
4.2.3 Fatty Acid Profile of
Egusi and Neri Seeds
4.3.1 N:3 Polyunsaturated
Fatty Acid Content of Eggs
4.3.2 N:6 Polyunsaturated
Fatty Acid Content of Eggs
4.4.1 Effects of Incorporating
Flaxseed Oil in Layer Diet and Egg Storage Duration in Ambient Temperature on
Egg Quality Assessment
4.5.1 Effects of Flaxseed Oil
Diet on the Health of Laying Birds
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND
RECCOMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Egg is generally considered a
complete food since it is an excellent source of easily digestible proteins,
vitamins, minerals, carotenoids and fatty acids and form part of proper
nutrition for all ages, especially, children (Song and Kerver, 2000;
Ayim-Akonor and Akonor, 2014). Poultry eggs (i.e. table eggs) are a common food
and one of the versatile ingredients used in cooking nutritious foods. Nonetheless,
it is noticed that egg consumption is declining worldwide over the years
(Sumner, 2008). While this puts most poultry industries at risk with most
business avenues collapsing, it is a large source of protein that is ignored
especially in developing countries. The industry suffers a lot due to the early
controversial reports with respect to egg cholesterol in raising human blood or
serum cholesterol levels that may put human health at risk (Weggemans et al.,
2001). This fear has as a result blurred this complete food from many people’s
menu (Herron and Fernandez, 2004). However, many clinical researches more
recently have demonstrated that serum cholesterol levels do not depend on
consuming eggs (Song and Kerver, 2000; Chakrabarty et al., 2004; Fernandez,
2006; Nakamura et al., 2006; Djoussé and Gaziano, 2008; Chai et al., 2009;
Scrafford et al., 2009).
Recently, some researchers Goldberg
(2014) and Virtanen et al., (2016) downplayed the argument on egg cholesterol
and removed eggs from among the list of foods that increases the risk of
cardiovascular diseases. However, such results and recent assurances need time
to mature in consumer’s minds, before leading to increase in egg consumption.
The recent campaign to increase
worldwide egg intake is forcing researchers and government to explore
alternative procedures of checking the cholesterogenic properties of eggs. This
led to the development of designer eggs or eggs fortified with other nutrients
which have become popular in Europe and North America (Manohar et al., 2007).
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
are among the limited egg nutrients which are of significance to the human
wellbeing, especially the omega 3 polyunsaturated unsaturated fatty acids
(n:3-PUFA) and its interaction with omega 6 fatty acids for proper balance in
the body (Simopoulos, 2000, Manohar et al., 2007). Since the n:3-PUFA is not
synthetized in human body (Meyer et al., 2003) its fortification into eggs
turned out to be an important technique in changing omega-6 (n:6) to omega-3
(n:3) proportion to the required ratio and therefore check the portion of
cholesterol in eggs. The n:3 polyunsaturated unsaturated fatty acids (n:3 PUFA)
have been perceived as good source of nutrient for human wellbeing (Palmquist et
al., 2005) for the past few decades.
It is essential to take n:3 fatty
acids during pregnancy since it plays a part in normal foetal brain development
which in this manner enhances neurodevelopment (Wahlqvist, 1998). Hence
deprivation during pregnancy is associated with lower development and lower
behavioural scores (Coletta et al., 2010). The n:3 present in the diet of
children conditions the visual and cerebral capacities, including intellectual
capacity. Dietary n:3 PUFA may also play a key part to treat or eliminate
various ailments such as coronary illness (Wahlqvist, 1998), mental problems
(Ramakrishnan et al., 2009), prevent some neuropsychiatric disorders,
especially depression, and in addition dementia, strikingly in the elderly
(Bourre, 2004). These and many confirm seventeen benefits derived from n:3 PUFA
(Hjalmarsdotirr, 2016). These benefits include evidence that: omega-3s can
fight depression and anxiety, omega-3s can improve eye health, promote brain
health during pregnancy and early life, improve risk factors for heart disease,
reduce symptoms of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD) in
children, fight autoimmune diseases, decrease mental disorders, fight
age-related mental decline and Alzheimer’s disease, help prevent cancer,
improve bone and joint health, alleviate menstrual pain, may improve sleep and fats
are good for the skin.
Other past researches stressed the
part this important nutrient plays in human health (MacLean et al., 2006;
Bernstein et al., 2008; Brunner et al., 2009; Yashodhara et al., 2009). Also
n:3 PUFA can play a vital role in lowering blood viscosity and pressure, plasma
triglycerides, platelet aggregation and cardiac arrhythmia (Simopoulos, 2000).
Omega-3 fatty acid eggs are eggs
fortified with flax products through flax fed to laying hens. These eggs
contain the essential n:3 fatty acids, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), plus two
other n:3 fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA).
The n:3 enriched eggs through this procedure provide about 12 times more n:3
fatty acids than regular eggs, based on an average n:3 content of 0.5 grams in
n:3 enriched eggs versus 0.04 grams in regular eggs (Morris, 2003).
The feeding value of the egg can be
influenced by the formulation and composition of layer diets (Van and
Huyghebaert, 1995). And this has led several interested researchers in the
production of designer eggs through this mechanism. Several experiments, for
most part in western nations, have been directed on enrichment of n:3
unsaturated fats in eggs and the production parameters of layers (Cherian et
al., 2002; Bean and Leeson 2003; Mazalli et al., 2004; Jia et al., 2008), egg
quality (Galobart et al., 2001a; Ajuyah et al., 2003; Cherian 2008), sensory
evaluation (Ahn et al., 1996; Gonzalez-Esquerra and Leeson 2000; Rymer and
Givens, 2005) and health benefits (Lewis et al., 2000; Narahari, 2003; Payet et
al., 2004). However, no study has been accounted to date on any part of
designer eggs production and their effect on egg quality and consumer’s
acceptability in Ghana and for that matter Sub-Saharan Africa where this
nutrition is crucially needed. Indigenous studies on this research is vital as
accessibility of feed ingredients used to produce these designer eggs are
different in various regions of the World and locally accessible ingredient might
give a chance of more economical generation of these designer eggs. Numerous
commercial organizations are creating a few assortments of designer eggs which
are accessible at a premium cost in developed countries yet their strategy for production
stays patent and sometimes as a business mystery which are not available for
repetition. Hence this research seeks to add new information to the development
of n:3 designer eggs in Ghana.
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