ABSTRACT
Over the years, there has been a debate on the
application of participatory tools in real life. Participatory tools such as
role playing games have been developed and tested in different countries where,
they have been discovered to influence people’s behaviour towards solving their
problems. This study was a part of European Union and African Union cooperative
research aimed to increase food production in irrigated farming systems in
Africa (EAU4Food) project in Mozambique. The aim was to assess the perceived
appropriateness and practicability of role playing game among farmers’
association for maintaining the Chókwè irrigation scheme. A formative
evaluation research was undertaken. Four farmers’ associations were purposively
selected. The main solutions to the problems were to increase in maintenance
capacity of the managers in terms of equipment and financial resources, a
better transparency in the planning of annual maintenance, a strengthening of
the mobilising capacity of water user associations and a better management of
cattle in the scheme. The role playing game was appropriate in the cleaning of
canals and actors’ interaction on most associations. The players perceived it
practicable and they were happy to participate. Hence, they expressed interest in
organising more game sessions. More times farmers play the game, their
perceived appropriateness of the game in solving the problems, increases. It is
then recommended that the role playing game should be used with other Farmer
Associations regardless of type of farmers. The solutions provided by the
farmers should be evaluated to assess their effectiveness.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Role playing game is a participatory tool that can be used to
simulate real situations of sharing different views of stakeholders involved in
a natural resource allocation. The Chókwè Irrigation Scheme (CIS) is the
largest irrigation scheme in Mozambique. The scheme is affected by poor
drainage, watercourses blockage and canals damaged by cattle. The tool has been
successfully used in South Africa and Asia to influence people solving problems
similar to those of the CIS. In this chapter, the research presents the
background to the study, the statement of the problem, objectives of the study,
significance of the study, delimitations of the study, limitations of the
study, assumptions of the study, definition of key terms and organisation of
the study.
Background to the Study
This study was within the EAU4Food project, which is an
European Union and African Union cooperative research aimed to increase food
production in irrigated farming systems in Africa. The project in Africa is
based in South Africa, Mali, Tunisia, Ethiopia and Mozambique. It started in
2011 with overall goal of addressing the need for new approaches that are
capable of increasing food production in irrigated areas in Africa, while
ensuring healthy and resilient environments. To move towards the attainment of
this goal, there are two key strategies outlined by the project. The two strategies are firstly to utilise a
true trans-disciplinary approach that involves active participation of all
stakeholders in all relevant disciplines and, secondly, to determine and
respect the sustainable production threshold. The threshold of sustainable
production means a point at which the use of productive factors is in a way
that meets the needs of the present without negatively affecting the future
generations’ needs.
The economy of Mozambique, one of the countries involved in
the EAU4food project, is essentially agricultural. More than 90% of farmers
practice small-scale agriculture that is characterised by low productivity
mainly, because of low adoption of improved agricultural techniques, low access
to inputs and unfavourable rainfall.
About 8.8% of family sector farmers use irrigation (MINAG,
2010). The Chókwè Irrigation Scheme in Chókwè District, Gaza Province in
Mozambique, is the largest irrigation scheme in the nation and is being managed
by a public enterprise, Hidráulica de Chókwè Empresa Pública (HICEP).
According to Chilundo, Munguambe and Namagina (2012), the
climate of Chókwè District is semi-arid with large rainfall variability within
and between years with an average rainfall of 622 mm. Rainfall occurs mostly
during the rainy season (October to April) counting for 88% of total annual
rain. The average evapotranspiration is about 1,408 mm, resulting in deficit of
water of 786 mm (the difference between rainfall and evapotranspiration) that
must be covered by irrigation, if the farmers need to produce (rice and
horticultural crops) the main crops grown in this district.
Chókwè Irrigation Scheme as the
largest scheme in Mozambique has over the years been affected by poor drainage,
floods and salination. These problems include cleaning of canals and adverse
effects of cattle inside the scheme. Maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure
of the scheme is the primary function of management.
According to Skutsch and Evans, as cited by Becu, Neef,
Schreinemachers and Sangkapitux (2007), with examples of two large irrigation
schemes in Asia, highlighted that there is a direct relationship between
adequate level of maintenance and overall agricultural production. Maintenance
of the irrigation scheme is very important because it influences the
distribution of water to the users.
For Chigozie (2012), many agricultural development interventions
tend to fail because of use of administrative methodologies or “Top-Down”
approach. This “Top-Down” approach considers the beneficiaries as “objects”
that need to be changed to a “better” situation. Instead of considering them as
“agents” that also have roles to play in expressing their needs and, how they
think the problem can be filled. The interventions therefore tend to fail
because of ignoring the needs of the target group of agricultural development.
Teaching process consists of the strategies that the
development agents combine to assess the beneficiaries while the learning is a
process where the beneficiaries get the deeper understanding of the subject
matter. Administrative methodology in a learning process is considered the
teacher or facilitators centred methods which assume that, the learners (target
groups) have no knowledge. The “Bottom-up” approach, on the other hand, takes
into consideration students centred
methods that take into consideration the knowledge of the target groups. There
are different student centred methods wherein the role play, simulation and
gaming are part of them (Chigozie, 2012). According to Reed (2008), participatory
tools were developed in part as a response to the top-down, science-led
transfer of technology paradigm.
The “Top-Down” and “Bottom-up” approaches are relevant
theories of perception that are used as a process of acquiring and processing
of information characterised by the direction of information flow. People’s
perception became the central question in the communication theory in modern
design, as well as, in the newest advanced technologies. The theories of
Perception used to be mainly the domain of philosophers trying to explain their
own knowledge. Nowadays, the centre of research is shifting away from a purely
human dimension and they are becoming more scientifically technological
utilitarian matter. However, working with adults, their point of views should
be respected (Démuth, 2012; Richards, 2006)
According to Chigozie (2012), role playing allows the adult
student to experience something which they are aware of, and it encourages
active participation on the part of adult students. To reduce the failures of
development interventions, institutions of rural development have applied
participatory methods (such as: Participatory Technology Development,
Participatory Rural Appraisal) that enhance the rural community to be the
mentors of their social and economic development. The participatory methods
emphasize the strengths of experimental capability of local community.
Over the years, participatory tools,
such as role playing games have received criticisms because it is difficult to
envision a direct impact of these tools on the natural and economic
environment, once it is so difficult to link this kind of actions to changes in
the state of environment. Thus, the objectives of participatory tools are
targeted towards improving accommodation processes rather than measurable
changes in state of the environment. However, participatory tools are useful
for building a common perception in a situation of changing rules and resource
allocation where there are always conflicting points of views (D’Aquino &
Bah, 2011).
In Chókwè Irrigation Scheme, small farmers expressed
difficulties to proceed to the maintenance of secondary and tertiary irrigation
and canals drainage that they are supposed to take charge of due to limited
financial capital and level of equipment (Maduma, cited by Eau4Food report
2012). The manager of the scheme (HICEP) has notably reassumed responsibility
for cleaning secondary and tertiary canals and has acquired new machinery to do
so. The acknowledgement of these difficulties led HICEP to reform recently the
maintenance organization. HICEP has also prohibited the use of cattle inside
the scheme although enforcement of the new rules is weak because, farmers say
that outside the irrigated scheme, the cattle are being stolen.
In the light of the poor maintenance, farmers in the
irrigated scheme lose their production due to excess water (bad drainage) or
lack of water (watercourses blocked). Because of bad drainage, the floods cause
salination of soil and reduce its farming capabilities. The farmers therefore,
face difficulties to pay back bank loans contracted, reducing their access to
future loans.
The aim of the study was to assess
the perception of farmers about the appropriateness and practicability of role
playing games after playing the games at the Chókwè Irrigation Scheme, Chókwè
district, Mozambique. A game session is only part of a larger work with both
the managers and the farmers concerning development of participatory planning
for maintenance. The idea was to assess the farmer associations’ perceived
appropriateness and practicability of the game on the maintenance of the
irrigation scheme and then engage all actors in building their own plan of
changes.....
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